Introduction
Some studies have revealed that teacher education programs commonly have limited influence on shaping the performance of local non-native English teachers (Bjork, 2013; Klassen & Tze, 2014; Sapril et al., 2018; Setiawan, 2009). However, other research has emphasized that functional teacher education programs based on relevant empirical evidence in teaching English as a foreign language from a multicultural or global perspective could provide wide-ranging sustainable opportunities for local non-native English teachers to increase their performance in teaching English by developing and practicing learned pedagogical knowledge (Bjork, 2013; Darling-Hammond et al., 2009; Guerriero, 2014; Yoon et al., 2007). Yet, most contemporary English as a foreign language teacher education programs have not been developed with the requirements mentioned above (Guerriero, 2014; Mueller, 2012; Sapril et al., 2018; Weng & McGuire, 2021).
Teacher education programs with a global perspective that focus on instilling a strong sense of teacher efficacy through multicultural experiences have been found to lead to more outstanding performance in teaching English as a foreign language (Casinader, 2018; Howard, 2021; Khurram et al., 2021; Lee, 2021; Ruiz & Baird, 2013). Teacher performance is a teacher’s demonstrated efficacy established through achievement scores, administrator, and student assessments, and observed use of language and pedagogical practices (Amzat, 2017; Cash, 2016). Therefore, teacher education programs should predominately focus on increasing the performance of the teacher participants by enhancing their perceived English teaching confidence and English language proficiency and instilling a more favorable attitude toward English.
A lack of English proficiency has been associated with low teaching quality, and equally low confidence in teaching English (Nunan, 2003).. Therefore, teacher education programs should regularly incorporate models or examples of other similar non-native English teachers from various countries who have successfully reached a higher level of English proficiency and motivation in employing English in teaching (Abdullah, 2015; Braine, 2018; Ruiz & Baird, 2013; Sapril et al., 2018; Weng & McGuire, 2021; Wulyani et al., 2019). These programs should also involve an aspect of intercultural inclusion that alters the teachers' attitude and belief towards using English in teaching (Keengwe, 2010; Lowe, 2012; Schwartz et al., 2010; Wati, 2011). This study, therefore, is focused on providing insight into the influence of continued teacher education on the perceived English teaching confidence, proficiency in English, and attitude toward English, and the relationship between these factors and the performance levels of local non-native Indonesian teachers of English within the Kutai Kartanegara Government Regency of East Kalimantan, Indonesia.
Global situation of teacher education
Numerous studies into the effects of teacher education on various indicators of general teacher performance have been carried out, yet research into the influence of teacher education on overall teacher performance of local non-native teachers of English is scarce (Agudo, 2017; Prihatin, 2019; Reid & Kleinhenz, 2015; Sulistiyo et al., 2016). Studies have focused on the perceived English teaching confidence of non-native English teachers in teaching English as a foreign language (Orr, 2012; Uchida & Sugimoto, 2019; Wati, 2011). Studies have likewise emphasized the feeling of neglect felt by non-native teachers when they fail to develop necessary English proficiency skills. It has led to concerns of adverse effects on the performance. At the same time, other research has established that in addition to a perceived level of English proficiency, a lack of multicultural exposure of contemporary teacher education has taken to some uncertainty in the English teaching performance of non-native English teachers (Keengwe, 2010; Klassen & Tze, 2014; Schwartz et al., 2010; Tangen, 2007; Yoon et al., 2007). Yet, there has not been any study regarding the influence of teacher education on the combined mentioned factors of perceived English teaching confidence, English language proficiency, and attitude toward English, and the relationship between the quantification of such elements on the overall performance levels of local non-native English teachers in Indonesia.
Teacher education in Indonesia
Regardless of limited opportunities due to financial constraints and cultural barriers, teacher education has become a primary focus of governments in developing countries where English is taught as a foreign language (Karea, 2016; Mulkeen, 2013; Yoon et al., 2007). Accordingly, governments in certain Southeast Asian countries are presently engaging in large-scale teacher development programs, as in the Kutai Kartanegara Government Regency (Kukar) in East Kalimantan, Indonesia (World Bank, 2010).
The observations of school principals and veteran teachers alike across Indonesia indicated that novice local non-native teachers of English had not been professionally developed with regards to the needs of global English language teaching (Chang et al., 2014; Karea, 2016; Setiawan, 2009; Sulistiyo et al., 2016; Wati, 2011). Hence, teacher education programs are essential in equipping novice and experienced teachers alike to increase their English language skills and enhance their global knowledge of English and the language content they should teach (Bjork, 2013; Rahmadi et al., 2010; Sulistiyo et al., 2016). Professional teacher education programs must then meet the demand for and expectations of the current teaching profession and contribute to developing a positive view of teaching and learning English in Indonesia (Howard, 2021; Marzulina et al., 2019; Wati, 2011).
Even though Indonesia, a developing Southeast Asian nation and a member of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), has accomplished much in providing greater access to primary English education in recent decades, the quality of English education in the country is still considered deficient (EF Education First, 2020; World Bank, 2010). There is a significant concern within the Indonesian education sector about the lack of quality of English education and worries about subject knowledge, pedagogical competence, and academic aptitude of local non-native Indonesian teachers of English. In addition to low levels of professional knowledge and skills, teachers’ motivation and effort in Indonesia are also areas of serious concern (Lie et al., 2019; World Bank, 2010; Wulyani et al., 2019).
Researchers have pointed out that the Indonesian educational system is not consistently producing university graduates with high-quality knowledge and practical English teaching skills (Marzulina et al., 2019; Prihatin, 2019; Reid & Kleinhenz, 2015). For an improvement in student learning outcomes to take place in Indonesia, a higher caliber of teaching candidates must be recruited, and the efficacy of the current local teachers of English must be improved through appropriate pedagogically concentrated teacher education programs (Bjork, 2013; Chang et al., 2014; Khurram et al., 2021; Lie et al., 2019). Although many challenges are facing Indonesia in overcoming the established antiquated practices of teaching English (Prihatin, 2019; Rahmadi et al., 2010), the Ministry of Education is in the process of an educational reform implementation with one of the primary objectives in increasing the number of qualified novice teachers of English, and enhancing the quality of the veteran teachers of English through professional development programs (Chang et al., 2014; Karea, 2016; Setiawan, 2009; Sulistiyo et al., 2016).
Teacher development within East Kalimantan, Indonesia
Isolated school districts within East Kalimantan, Indonesia, have restricted access to valuable teacher resources leading to overwhelming challenges in educating the learners in those districts (Rahmadi et al., 2010; Sapril et al., 2018). Local non-native teachers of English in these districts, although they are exceedingly dedicated to their teaching responsibility, do not have adequate teaching competence, nor do they have sufficient teaching resources to be effective English teachers (Rachman et al., 2019). Therefore, researchers have recommended that by increasing incentives for the local teachers of English, incorporating more regular pre-service and in-service education, deploying new local and globally focused curricula, and lastly, constructing better education facilities may lead to the enhancement of the quality of English education in these more remote areas of Indonesia (Rachman et al., 2019; Rahmadi et al., 2010; Sapril et al., 2018).
To address the need for improving teacher quality, the Kutai Kartanegara Government Regency (Kukar) of East Kalimantan, Indonesia, recently allocated a sizeable portion of the total Regency budget towards teacher education for the development of local non-native English teachers (Guru Kukar Akan Ikuti Pelatihan Ke Cambridge University Press, 2016). For that reason, this study will examine the relationship between the perceived English teaching confidence, English language proficiency, and attitude toward English from both before and after a teacher education program with the local non-native Indonesian teachers' performance levels of teaching English.
Methods
This retrospective study used a validated supplied-type developed survey questionnaire to gather data in response to the above research focus.
Research environment
The study was conducted in the Kutai Kartanegara Government Regency (Kukar), located in the Indonesian province of East Kalimantan in the eastern portion of Borneo.
Participants
The target population (N=72) for this study was forty Indonesian teachers of English (n=40) and thirty-two administrators (n=32) who were in direct supervisory positions of the teachers at thirty-two schools composed of fifteen junior high schools, eleven high schools, and six vocational schools. The teachers in this group were selected from a larger group of 333 local Indonesian teachers of English based on the Cambridge English Placement Test (CEPT) and IELTS (International English Language Testing System) exam scores. The group of teachers was chosen to participate in a one-month pre-departure transitional teacher education in the latter part of 2016 conducted by a qualified instructor from a country where English is the first language (Khurram et al., 2021), followed by a two-month teacher capacity building program held at the Bell School of Languages in Cambridge, the United Kingdom. The programs focused on improving English teaching confidence, English proficiency, and attitude toward English of the local non-native English teacher participants (Guru Kukar Akan Ikuti Pelatihan Ke Cambridge University Press, 2016).
Data gathering tools
The study adopted a validated supplied-type developed questionnaire from a previous analysis by Lee (2009) and adapted the questionnaire to fit the English teaching context in Indonesia (See Appendix 1). The items for the original research instrument used by Lee (2009) were developed and evaluated by a group of seven experts and field-tested for appropriateness and clarity to establish both appearance validity and content validity.
The questionnaire was delivered in English, considering the minimum English language proficiency level was a CEFR B2 level for the teachers and their direct supervisors. In addition, the researcher or a trained Indonesian research assistant was made available to answer any questions that may have occurred to alleviate any misunderstanding of the questionnaire items. Also, consent was obtained from all participants before responding to the survey questionnaires.
The questionnaire contained four sections and sought to address the research focus. The first section gathered personal and professional background information on the participants. The second section used thirty-six Likert scale items to collect information on the teacher participants' perceived sense of confidence in teaching English before and after the teacher education program. The third section employed five Likert scale items to gather information on the teacher participants' perceived English language proficiency in each of the four language skills, including listening, speaking, reading, and writing, before and after the teacher education program. Finally, the fourth part utilized eighteen Likert-type scale items to gather information on the participants' perceived attitude toward the English language before and after the teacher education program.
Data gathering techniques
This study employed a retrospective study approach (Salkind, 2010). In a retrospective study, the outcome information is identified retrospectively from a collection of data used by or relating to the administration of an organization or through reviews of interviews, surveys, and questionnaires. Retrospective studies are primarily used in healthcare, as in disease or medicine research, and in other sociological studies as a tool for recalled (before) and current outcomes comparison in qualitative and quantitative type research. Therefore, seeing as the outcome had already occurred at the time the study was initiated, this research was compelled to employ an adoptive retrospective study approach (Salkind, 2010).
Retrospective studies are not without limitations; for instance, recall bias and recall error are considered their main limitations (Beckett et al., 2001). To minimize recall bias and recall error, participants and administrators who were in immediate supervisory positions of the participants, were approached soon after the teacher education program.
Prior ethical approval was requested and received from the Department of Education and Culture in East Kalimantan, Indonesia. This approval likewise provided unimpeded access to the target population, allowing all members of both groups to be measured, thereby ensuring a complete enumeration.
Statistical procedure
Modified questionnaires were sent to all seventy-two participants: forty local Indonesian English teacher participants and thirty-two administrators who served in direct supervisory positions. All questionnaires were returned, and responses were usable. The modified questionnaire consisted of five-point Likert scale items as those traditionally found in teacher performance scales (Tangen, 2007). The same statistical measure for treatment of the data as the original research instrument questionnaire utilized by Lee (2009) was adopted to analyze the modified questionnaire, namely using the following statistical tools: the one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA), independent and pair t-test, Pearson Correlation, frequency, percent, and Standard Deviation.
Statistical treatment
The organization of levels of measurement ranges or interpretation for the statistical treatment of the data per section as presented in Table 1 below, was divided into five equal rankings: Rank 1 (1.00 – 1.49); Rank 2 (1.50 – 2.49); Rank 3 (2.50 – 3.49); Rank 4 (3.50 – 4.49); and Rank 5 (4.50 – 5.00).
Table 1. Scale of rank or interpretation of data
Frequency count and percentage were used to describe the profile of the teachers and administrators. Means and standard deviations were used to determine the self-reported levels of perceived English teaching confidence, English proficiency, attitude toward English, and the teachers' perceived overall performance levels before and after the teacher education program. An independent t-test was used for two data groups, with a p-value greater than .05 (p<.05.), indicating there is not any significant difference detected between the variances of the two before and after samples (Lowry, 2014). The data reported from the above factors were then quantified using a one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA). The inclusive performance levels of local non-native Indonesian teachers of English were then identified (Lowry, 2014).
Findings
Profiles of teachers and administrators
The majority of teachers were in their thirties to late forties. There were no active teachers above 60 years old as 60 is the retirement age for civil servants in Indonesia. In Indonesia, civil servants tend to serve in administrator roles, such as principals and assistant principals ,after retirement age (Chang et al., 2014). The teachers revealed a somewhat similar age distribution pattern as the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, & Asian Development Bank, 2014). As with the administrators, the better part (69%) of the total administrator group was between 50 and 60 years old, thereby substantiating Chang et al.’s (2014) claim.
The teachers reported an average of 10.75 years of teaching experience. This finding is similar to the reported average of ten years of teaching experience of the active teaching force in public junior high school, high school, and vocational school teachers in Indonesia (OECD & Asian Development Bank, 2015). The data showed an average teaching experience for the administrators of 23.5 years since most administrators were principals and assistant principals in the later stage of their career.
A small percentage of the teachers were classified Guru Kelas [Regular/ Classroom Teacher], with the more significant part classified as Guru Mata Pelajaran [Subject Teacher]. Accordingly, a lesser percentage of the administrators indicated that even though they served in a senior teacher position, they were still classified as Guru Kelas [Regular/Classroom Teacher]. The administrators stated a similar response, with a few functioning as either English Supervisor or School Supervisor, but they are still classified Guru Mata Pelajaran [Subject Teacher]. Some indicated that they were Wakil Kepala Sekola [Assistant Principal], while most indicated that they are Kepala Sekolah [Principal].
The majority of the teachers held a bachelor’s degree, with a smaller percentage held a master’s degree, and one had a doctoral degree. Furthermore, the majority of bachelor’s degree holders completed a bachelor’s in education with a specialization in English or English Language Teaching, the master’s degree holders completed a master’s in education with majors in Applied Linguistics and English, and the single doctoral degree holder completed a Doctor of Education in Educational Administration. In addition, the collected data showed that many of the administrators held a bachelor’s degree, with the most substantial portion of the group held master’s degrees, and two held a Doctoral degree. Out of the bachelor’s degree holders, most bachelor's degrees were in Education specializing in English, English Language Teaching, Islamic Education, or Mathematics. Four respondents held a Bachelor of Science specializing in Physics, Biology, Technology, or Economics. Most of the master’s degrees were in Education, with majors in Educational Management, with a few in Applied Linguistics, Science, Educational Administration, Finance, and Economics. The major for the two Doctoral degree holders was Educational Management.
Levels of English teaching confidence
As shown in Table 2, the findings indicated that the teachers perceived their English teaching confidence level before the teacher education program as Moderately Confidently, with the administrators corroborating the same interpretation. The data also indicated that the teachers' perceived their English teaching confidence level after the teacher education program as Highly Confidently. The administrators independently observed the teachers’ confidence level as Completely Confidently. The data indicated a significant difference (t = -8.773, p = .006) in the teachers’ perceived English teaching confidence level from before and after the teacher education program.
Table 2. English Teaching confidence levels of teachers before and after the teacher education program
Levels of English language proficiency
As shown in Table 3, the findings indicated that the teachers' perceived level of English language proficiency before the teacher education program in the categories of listening, speaking, and reading skills were Intermediate, and writing skill was Pre-Intermediate. The administrators observed that all categorical skills were Pre-Intermediate. The findings further indicated that the teachers' perceived English language proficiency level after the teacher education program in all categories was Upper-Intermediate, with the administrators independently corroborating the same interpretation. The collected data regarding the teachers' perceived English language proficiency indicated a significant difference (t = -12.420, p = .000) between before and after the teacher education program.
Table 3. English language proficiency levels of teachers before and after the teacher education program
Levels of attitude towards English
As shown in Table 4, the teachers regarded their attitude towards the English language before the teacher education program as Slightly Favor. In comparison, data collected from the administrators’ observation of the teachers' level of attitude towards English was interpreted as Neutral. Likewise, data collected from both the teachers and administrators about the perceived level of attitude towards the English language after the teacher education program was interpreted as Slightly Favor. The collected data from both the teachers and the administrators regarding the teachers' perceived attitude towards English indicated a significant difference (t = -3.029, p = .047) between before and after the teacher education program.
Table 4. Levels of attitude of teachers before and after the teacher education program
Performance levels of the teachers
As shown in Table 5, the findings indicated that the teachers' perceived overall performance level before the teacher education program was reported as Meets Expectations. The corroborating data from the administrators’ observations were likewise reported as Meets Expectations. The findings further indicated that the teachers' perceived performance level after the teacher education program was reported as Exceeds Expectations, with the administrators corroborating the same interpretation. The collected data from both the teachers and the administrators regarding the teachers' perceived overall performance levels indicated a significant difference (t = -7.723, p = .008) in performance levels before and after the teacher education.
Table 5. Overall performance levels of the teachers before and after the teacher education program
Discussion
Studies have shown that an English teachers’ perceived performance substantially impacts their teaching practices and student learning. Lee (2009) determined that local non-native English teachers’ perceived level of English proficiency, and their perceived attitude toward the English language, were substantial predictors for teachers’ English beliefs or confidence in teaching English. Although investigations in the field of teaching English as a second or foreign language by local non-native English teachers are common, it is rare to focus on the influence of teacher education on the combined factors of English teaching confidence, English language proficiency, and attitude toward English, and the relationship between the quantification of such elements on the perceived performance levels of local non-native English teachers in East Kalimantan, Indonesia.
In this study, data was collected in terms of age, gender, teaching experience, current position, current school or level assignment, and highest educational attainment of the teachers and administrators. The majority of teachers were female in their thirties or forties and had primarily five to fourteen years of teaching experience. They held at least a minimum of an undergraduate degree in education with the highest concentration of major in either English or English Language Teaching, and were assigned to public junior high, high schools, and vocational schools, thereby showing a distribution of secondary school assignment contrasting the government statistics report.
The data showed a significant improvement in the perceived level of English teaching confidence, English language proficiency, and the attitude toward the English language of the local non-native English teachers after the teacher education program. The data also showed a significant improvement in the teachers' perceived overall performance rating following the teacher education program. The data demonstrated that local non-native Indonesian teachers of English could overcome their perceived teaching limitations through professional development.
Prior studies examined the relationship between teacher education and perceived teacher performance. They found that the teachers who were receptive to continued teacher education reported the program's perceived effectiveness in their classroom teaching performance. A well-designed teacher education program was found to improve a teacher's perceived English teaching performance and effectiveness. Thus, quality teacher education programs should be introduced as an essential factor in teacher professional development.
The present study suggests that teacher education's evident benefits and effectiveness regarding the perceived confidence in teaching English, proficiency in English, attitude toward English, and local non-native English teachers' perceived overall performance should receive more attention in future education planning. In conclusion, this study, in concurrence with Darling-Hammond et al. (2009) and Tangen (2007), established that the success of a teacher education program is directly correlated to various factors such as the teachers’ perceived confidence in teaching English, proficiency in English, and attitude toward English.
Conclusion
This study found that teacher education programs influenced perceived confidence in teaching English, English proficiency, attitude toward English, and the performance of local non-native English teachers in East Kalimantan, Indonesia. The data showed a significant improvement in perceived English teaching confidence among the teachers in line with previous research. The data showed a significant perceived improvement across every proficiency category, demonstrating that teacher education positively influenced the teachers' English language proficiency level. Then, the data showed a substantial improvement in the perceived attitude toward English of the teachers. Finally, this study's findings showed that the education program effectively increased the teachers' perceived performance in teaching English.
Financial and cultural limitations need to be considered in providing a teacher education program. Considering the financial constraints, the cost of travel and accommodations for teachers to participate in a teacher education program at an educational institution in a country where English is the first language may be impracticable. Considering the cultural limitations, most local non-native Indonesian English teachers have never ventured outside of their local areas, much less outside of Indonesia. These limitations may be alleviated if a qualified teacher trainer or instructor from a country where English is the first language could be employed.
The generalizability of the findings may be applied to quality teacher education programs worldwide. Teacher professional development is a part of every education system, and the necessity of improved teacher education programs has been discussed in great depth. Therefore, it would be prudent for education administrators and education ministers to consider suitable teacher education programs.
Acknowledgment
I am grateful to Mrs. Emy Rosana Saleh and other management team members of the Department of Education and Culture in East Kalimantan, Indonesia, for their support and dedication to this study. I am especially thankful to the teachers and administrators who took part in this study for their kindness and support during this lengthy research undertaking.
References
Abdullah, U. (2015). Learning through teacher professional training: English teacher certification program in Indonesia [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. Ohio State University. http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc_num=osu1427720572
Agudo, J. D. M. (Ed.). (2017). Native and non-native teachers in English language classrooms. De Gruyter Mouton.
Amzat, I. H. (2017). Key performance indicators for excellent teachers in Malaysia: A measurement model for excellent teaching practices. International Journal of Productivity and Performance Management, 66(3), 298–319. https://doi.org/10.1108/ijppm-06-2015-0094
Beckett, M., Da Vanzo, J., Sastry, N., Panis, C., & Peterson, C. (2001). The quality of retrospective data: An examination of long-term recall in a developing country. The Journal of Human Resources, 36(3), 593-625. https://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3069631
Bjork, C. (2013). Teacher training, school norms and teacher effectiveness in Indonesia. In D. Suryadarma & G. W. Jones (Eds.), Education in Indonesia (pp. 53-67). ISEAS.
Braine, G. (2018). Non‐native‐speaker English teachers. In C. A. Chapelle (Ed.), The encyclopedia of applied linguistics (pp. 1–5). Wiley.
Cash, A. H. (2016). A call for mixed methods in evaluating teacher preparation programs. In T. Petty, A. Good, & S. M. Putman (Eds.), Handbook of research on professional development for quality teaching and learning (pp. 547-572). IGI Global.
Casinader, N. (2018). Transnational learning experiences and teacher transcultural capacity: The impact on professional practice – A comparative study of three Australian schools. Intercultural Education, 29(2), 258–280. https://doi.org/10.1080/14675986.2018.1430284
Chang, M. C., Shaeffer, S., Al-Samarrai, S., Ragatz, A. B., de Ree, J., & Stevenson, R. (2014). Teacher reform in Indonesia: The role of politics and evidence in policymaking. The World Bank. http://hdl.handle.net/10986/16355
Darling-Hammond, L., Wei, R. C., Andree, A., Richardson, N., & Orphanos, S. (2009). Professional learning in the learning profession: A status report on teacher development in the United States and abroad. National Staff Development Council. https://edpolicy.stanford.edu/sites/default/files/publications/professional-learning-learning-profession-status-report-teacher-development-us-and-abroad_0.pdf
EF Education First. (2020). EF EPI 2020 – Indonesia. EF English Proficiency Index. https://www.ef.com/ca/epi/regions/asia/Indonesia
Guerriero, S. (2014). Teachers’ pedagogical knowledge and the teaching profession: Background report and project objectives. OECD. http://www.oecd.org/education/ceri/Background_document_to_Symposium_ITEL-FINAL.pdf
Kukar Akan Ikuti Pelatihan Ke Cambridge University Press [40 Kukar teachers will take training at Cambridge University Press] (2016, July 13). Pemerintah Kabupaten Kutai Kartanegara. https://prokom-kukarkab-go-id.translate.goog/berita/pemerintahan/40-guru-kukar-akan-ikuti-pelatihan-ke-cambridge-university-press?_x_tr_sl=id&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=sc
Howard, A. M. (2021). Bangladeshi English language teachers’ use of transnational teacher training. In A. Ahmed & O. Barnawi (Eds.), Mobility of knowledge, practice and pedagogy in TESOL teacher education: Implications for transnational contexts (pp. 63-82). Palgrave Macmillan.
Karea, S. (2016). Indonesian secondary-trained EFL teachers teaching English to primary-age children: A study of motivational factors and EFL teaching knowledge [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. Australian Catholic University. https://doi.org/10.4226/66/5a9cb3a9b0b68
Keengwe, J. (2010). Fostering cross-cultural competence in preservice teachers through multicultural education experiences. Early Childhood Education Journal, 38(3), 197-204. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10643-010-0401-5
Khurram, B. A., Dikilitaş, K., & Zafar, H. (2021). Transnational professional development practices in TESOL teacher education. In A. Ahmed & O. Barnawi (Eds.), Mobility of knowledge, practice and pedagogy in TESOL teacher education: Implications for transnational contexts (pp. 39–62). Palgrave Macmillan.
Klassen, R. M., & Tze, V. M. C. (2014). Teachers’ self-efficacy, personality, and teaching effectiveness: A meta-analysis. Educational Research Review, 12, 59-76. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2014.06.001
Lee, E. (2021). Transnationalism in TESOL teacher education and applied linguistics: Reflections and (re)imaginations. In A. Ahmed, O. Barnawi (Eds.), Mobility of knowledge, practice and pedagogy in TESOL teacher education: Implications for transnational contexts (pp. 13-37). Palgrave Macmillan.
Lee, J-A. (2009). Teachers’ sense of efficacy in teaching English, perceived English language proficiency, and attitudes toward the English language: A case of Korean public elementary school teachers. [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. Ohio State University. https://etd.ohiolink.edu/apexprod/rws_etd/send_file/send?accession=osu1233648070&disposition=inline
Lie, A., Tamah, S. M., Trianawaty, T., Triwidayati, K. R., & Jemadi, F. (2019). English proficiency of secondary school teachers in Indonesia. Beyond Words, 7(2), 86-100. https://doi.org/10.33508/bw.v7i2.1950
Lowe, D. Y. (2012). Teacher perception of their initial traditional or alternative teacher training program. [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. The University of Southern Mississippi. https://aquila.usm.edu/dissertations/796
Lowry, R. (2014). Concepts and applications of inferential statistics. Vassar College.
Marzulina, L., Pitaloka, N. L., & Yolanda, A. D. (2019). Learning styles and English proficiency of undergraduate EFL students at one state Islamic university in Sumatera, Indonesia. Edukasi: Jurnal Pendidikan dan Pengajaran, 6(1), 214-228. https://doi.org/10.19109/ejpp.v6i1.3203
Mueller, C. M. (2012). The impact of teacher certification programs on teacher efficacy, job satisfaction, and teacher performance: A comparison of traditional and alternative certification. [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. Western Kentucky University. https://digitalcommons.wku.edu/diss/28
Mulkeen, A., Rattersee, W., & Voss-Lengnik, I. (2013). Teacher policy in primary and secondary education in development cooperation. Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) GmbH.
Nunan, D. (2003). The impact of English as a global language on educational policies and practices in the Asia-Pacific region. TESOL Quarterly, 37(4), 589-613. https://doi.org/10.2307/3588214
Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, & Asian Development Bank. (2015). Education in Indonesia: Rising to the challenge. OECD. http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264230750-en
Orr, K. (2012). Coping, confidence and alienation: The early experience of trainee teachers in English further education. Journal of Education for Teaching, 38(1), 51–65. https://doi.org/10.1080/02607476.2012.643656
Prihatin, Y. (2019). The practice of English language teaching in Indonesia. In the Proceedings of the 1st National Seminar of PBI (English Language Education) (pp. 25-33). https://proceeding.unikal.ac.id/index.php/nspbi/article/view/248/189
Rachman, D., Nur, D. R., Sunarti, S., & Puspita, R. H. (2019). The hurdles of the teacher in the practice of target language in the Indonesian EFL junior high school. ACITYA Journal of Teaching & Education, 1(1), 49-54. https://doi.org/10.30650/ajte.v1i1.206
Rahmadi, A., Istiqamah, I., & Adriyanto, M. (2010). Education in remote areas from teacher’s perspectives: A case study of East Kalimantan, Indonesia. Education Counts! Perhimpunan Pelajar Indonesia Australia.
Reid, K. & Kleinhenz, E. (2015). Supporting teacher development: Literature review. Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade. https://research.acer.edu.au/teacher_education/14
Ruiz, N. T., & Baird, P. J. (2013). Transnational teacher education: Towards theory and practice. NABE Journal of Research and Practice, 4(1), 60-100. https://doi.org/10.1080/26390043.2013.12067768
Salkind, N. J. (2010). Encyclopedia of research design (Vol. 1). Sage.
Sapril, Haruna, J., Saraka, & Sjamsir, H. (2018). Secondary school teachers’ performances at Sandaran Sub-District of East Kutai District East Kalimantan Indonesia. The Journal of Social Sciences Research, 4(5), 80-83. https://ideas.repec.org/a/arp/tjssrr/2018p80-83.html
Schwartz, A., Rodríguez, M. M. D., Santiago-Rivera, A. L., Arredondo, P., & Field, L. D. (2010). Cultural and linguistic competence: Welcome challenges from successful diversification. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 41(3), 210–220. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0019447
Setiawan, R. (2009). The effectiveness of teacher training in Indonesia: A practice by Sampoerna Foundation Teacher Institute (SFTI). Deutsches Institut für Erwachsenenbildung. https://www.die-bonn.de/asem/asem0920.pdf
Sulistiyo, U., Mukminin, A., & Yanto, Y. (2016). In the spirit of quality student teachers’ English proficiency and pedagogical skills: Teacher educators and school principals’ perception. Turkish Journal of Education, 5(3), 157-169. https://doi.org/10.19128/turje.81461
Tangen, D. J. (2007). A contextual measure of teacher efficacy for teaching primary school students who have ESL. [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. The Queensland University of Technology. https://eprints.qut.edu.au/16514
Uchida, Y., & Sugimoto, J. (2019). Non‐native English teachers’ confidence in their own pronunciation and attitudes towards teaching: A questionnaire survey in Japan. International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 30(1), 19–34. https://doi.org/10.1111/ijal.12253
Wati, H. (2011). The effectiveness of Indonesian teachers of English training programs in improving confidence and motivation. Transnational Journal of Instruction, 4(1), 79-104. http://www.e-iji.net/dosyalar/iji_2011_1_6.pdf
Weng, Z., & McGuire, M. A. (2021). Developing teaching expertise through transnational experience: Implications for TESOL teacher education. In A. Ahmed, O. Barnawi (Eds.), Mobility of knowledge, practice and pedagogy in TESOL teacher education: Implications for transnational contexts (pp. 311-332). Palgrave Macmillan.
World Bank. (2010). Transforming Indonesia’s teaching force (Vol. 1, Executive Summary). World Bank.
Wulyani, A. N., Elgort, I., & Coxhead, A. (2019). Exploring EFL teachers’ English language proficiency: Lessons from Indonesia. Indonesian Journal of Applied Linguistics, 9(2), 263-274. https://doi.org/10.17509/ijal.v9i2.20217
Yoon, K. S., Duncan, T., Lee, S. W. Y., Scarloss, B., & Shapley, K. L. (2007). Reviewing the evidence on how teacher professional development affects student achievement. Issues & Answers Report. REL 2007-No. 033. Department of Education.
