Professional teachers are always looking for methods of improving their classrooms. The process of searching for more effective instructional methodologies in second language (L2) classrooms has led to an interest in researching teachers’ knowledge and practices. One topic that has been slowly making its way from mainstream teacher education to L2 teacher education has been the practice of reflective teaching (RT) (e.g. Best, 2011; Burton, 2009; Farrell, 2007, 2011, 2012; Richards & Lockhart, 1994).
Williams and Burden (1997) noted that for teachers to be more effective, they need to look both inward and outward. In other words, teachers can enhance their professional abilities from both external sources and internal sources. External sources could be experts, such as researchers, teacher trainers, expert teachers, and supervisors. They could also be students or other participants in the educational system. Unfortunately, students are often overlooked or not viewed as valid resources. However, collecting and analyzing data taken from students and the classroom can and should be considered a valuable resource towards professional development because they are the ones actively participating in the learning process. Through analyzing their data, practitioners can understand the effectiveness of their teaching from a new or different point of view, which can often be significant and quite different from the noted experts. Sometimes teaching approaches or activities which are deemed to be effective by teachers or experts may not be perceived this way by students. Therefore, observing and learning from students can allow teachers a greater understanding of the classroom environment and practices.
The internal resource, self, is often one of the most overlooked resources in teacher professional development. However, by critically reflecting on what one has been doing and what the outcome of these actions has been, can lead to an enhancement of performance for future endeavors. It is ironic that a common practice for teachers is to have their students evaluate or proofread their work before submitting it for approval, when many teachers do not take the time to evaluate their own performance or lesson plans before applying them or reusing them in the classroom. Therefore, it is vital that teachers examine and re-examine their teaching practices in order to better understand their strengths and weaknesses so that they can make improvements and enhance their abilities in the future.
One of the ideas that this article is presenting is that teachers who are only interested in fulfilling the requirements of a curriculum are failing to recognize their classroom as their own learning environment. Therefore, it is important for teachers to view their own classroom as a research facility and a place where they can enhance their observational skills and learn more about their students and the effectiveness of their own teaching performance. RT can be one method for classroom teachers to discover answers to their own questions. Through RT teachers can learn whether or not their teaching philosophies are actually congruent with their actual classroom practices.
Reflection and/or self-examination are perhaps the most convenient and doable approaches to professional development. In addition, it may also be one of the least threatening methods for teachers, as they do not have to be criticized or evaluated by others. All they need is a positive attitude and a genuine interest to learn from what they are doing in their classroom. When teachers engage in RT they are demonstrating a higher level of responsibility for their professional development.
Definitions for Reflective Teaching
The RT approach is when teachers “collect data about teaching, examine their attitudes, beliefs, assumptions, and teaching practices, and use the information obtained as a basis for critical reflection about teaching” (Richards & Lockhart, 1994, p. 1). Bailey (2006) also described the approach as “gathering data about one’s own teaching, interpreting those data, and using our reflection to implement change” (p.193). Richards (2001) described six types of teacher knowledge: contextual knowledge, personal knowledge, practical knowledge, pedagogical knowledge, and reflective knowledge. Reflective knowledge is the type of knowledge that can be achieved through critical reflection. The knowledge gained through this process can then be utilized to increase the effectiveness of teaching and learning tasks by eliminating or changing aspects.
Reflection is not something new. However, in L2 teaching the idea of reflection may hold different meanings for different people. Farrell (2007) noticed that there are two distinct views regarding reflection in L2 education. The first is an informal view, seeing reflection as merely thinking about something first, but without too much effort or concentration. In other words, noticing something, but not reacting to it. Wallace (1996) points out that this type of reflection does not actually improve teaching.
Farrell’s (2007) second view is that reflection is a formal process where teachers can reflect systematically on their instruction and learning activities. Here, the teacher takes on more responsibility for their classroom behavior and activities. Teachers who hold this view are more likely to be examining their own beliefs about L2 teaching and learning, gathering data about their own teaching abilities, and analyzing this data in order to bring about positive changes.
Most professional teachers have spent time thinking about what may have worked or didn’t work in their classroom, but many have not taken further steps towards improvement. It is in this reflective opportunity where professional development can take place. If data can be organized, recorded, and re-examined, then it is possible to identify problems or obstacles. If not, then any reflective data may not be utilized to benefit teachers or learners. Richards and Lockhart (1994) point out that RT is based on five main assumptions:
- An informed teacher has an extensive knowledge base about teaching.
- Much can be learned about teaching through self-inquiry.
- Much of what happened in teaching is unknown to the teacher.
- Experience is insufficient as a basis for development.
- Critical reflection can trigger a deeper understanding of teaching.
One way to better understand these assumptions and the need for both internal and external sources of professional development is by examining the Johari Window (Luft, 1984). Luft uses the window to describe people, but here I will use the window as a metaphor for teachers and the classroom environment. The Johari Window includes four panes: an open area, a blind area, a hidden area, and an unknown area. The open area is the section about what other people know about a person and what the person knows about themselves. In teaching, the open window may be what other teachers, supervisors, and students know about the teacher and what the teacher knows about themselves. An example of this could be the teacher’s personality or whether or not the teacher follows a teacher-centered teaching approach or a student-centered teaching approach.
The blind area would include what other people know about a person, but what he/she does not know about themselves. For teachers, this means what the teacher does not know about their own teaching style or methodologies they adopt. An example of this could be the pace at which they talk in class or the pace they follow for classroom activities, perhaps too quickly for all of their students to follow.
The hidden area is for what an individual knows about themselves, but others do not know. For teachers this could mean areas of weakness that they are intentionally hiding from others. An example of this could be a teacher whose lesson plans are only being planned out one hour before being implemented without any real thought or preparations and simply done to offer busy work for the students.
The last window pane is the unknown area. This is what an individual and others do not know. For teachers it could be a strength or a weakness. For example, an ESL/EFL teacher could be gaining or losing face with some of their students through their classroom behavior or mannerisms without knowing they are appreciated or offensive in other cultures.
Utilizing the input and data collected by external sources, such as researchers, teacher trainers, expert teachers, and supervisors, teachers have the opportunity to enhance their teaching practices and improve on any area of weakness they may not have been aware of. By utilizing one’s internal resources, what a teacher knows about themselves and their own abilities that other people are not aware of, a teacher can become the most knowledgeable and appropriate person to help themselves increase their instructional practices. Therefore, by practicing RT with the information collected from the first three window panes, a reflective teacher can gain greater insight into the blind fourth pane and perhaps discover new possibilities or potential for greater success. Through the process of RT, there are many possible benefits to be gained.
Benefits of Reflective Teaching
There are several short-term and long-term benefits of reflective teaching. Richards and Lockhart (1994) discussed three potential benefits. First, when teachers look objectively at teaching and learners’ reactions and follow this with a deep critical analysis, they have the potential to acquire a fuller understanding of their own assumptions and teaching practices. Teachers may have strong opinions regarding approaches and theories, but may later notice that these ideologies do not carry over into their own practice in the classroom. For example, teachers may believe in the student-centered approach to teaching where planning, teaching, and assessment revolve around the needs and abilities of the students (Author, 2010), but may later realize that their classroom decisions and planning are based on fulfilling the requirements of the curriculum regardless of the needs of the students. Second, through the process of reflective teaching, teachers may gain a deeper conceptualization of both the practice and process of teaching and learning. They may question the theories they learned in their formal training based on their practicality in their specific learning environment. Finally, reflective teaching is a method of self-evaluation. Therefore, it is a method and means of professional development that all practitioners have access to. Bailey (2006) points out that supervisors cannot always observe and monitor the practices of all of the teachers under their wings, so teachers should be encouraged to enhance their teaching through reflective practice. In addition, through shared practice, this could also enhance the entire faculty’s professional development.
Besides the short-term and long-term benefits of enhanced teaching and lesson planning, other long-term benefits may include greater teacher and student satisfaction and more classroom success. In general, success is rewarding and tends to lead to greater happiness, which can lead to greater intrinsic motivation. Greater intrinsic motivation can to lead to greater success (Woolfolk, 1995), thus creating a positive learning cycle. Further, it can lead to increased job satisfaction for teachers who have met with frustrations and difficulties.
Types of Reflective Practice in Language Teaching
Based on some of the earlier research on reflective thinking (e.g. Killion and Todnem, 1991; Schön 1987), Farrell (2012) offers three distinct styles of reflective practice: reflection-in-action, reflection-on-action, and reflection-for-action. Reflection-in-action takes place in the classroom. This is the style of reflection when the teacher is observing what is taking place in the moment, or as the instruction or activities are taking place. In other words, as the teacher is teaching they are noticing what is working or what is not, both in their own teaching and in the learners’ performance. The second style of reflective practice, reflection-on-action, takes place after the teaching or activity has been concluded. It may take place immediately afterwards or later in the day, or even at a later date altogether. Again, the teacher is reflecting on what they noticed in the classroom. The third style of reflective practice, reflection-for-action, would be the ultimate goal for teachers. Similar to reflection-on-action, it takes place after the instruction or activity has been concluded, but also includes the data collected from reflection-in-action. However, this process is longer and more critical. The main focus of reflection-for-action is to utilize the information or data gathered in the classroom, create methods of improving the instruction or activity, and then apply the enhancement towards future lessons. If the adjustments prove successful, the teacher should adopt them, if not, they shouldn’t. In either case, reflection-for-action should be an ongoing process as both learners and curriculum continually change over time.
Methods for Practicing Reflective Teaching
Several teachers and researchers (e.g. Bailey, 2006; Farrell, 2011; Richards and Lockhart, 1994) have offered suggestions for methods of practicing reflective teaching. First, visit and/or observe other teachers in action. While the previously mentioned teachers and researchers suggest observing expert teachers, this researcher suggests observing any teacher in action, both novice and expert. Since the purpose of observation and reflection is to enhance one’s own teaching, it can be equally important to learn about what works successfully and what does not. Noticing the errors of others and then reflecting on whether or not one makes similar errors could shed light on a particular problem in the classroom that had previously gone unnoticed. Second, videotape one’s own classroom for self-evaluation and analysis. In this researcher’s opinion, this is perhaps the most useful to reflective practitioners looking for self-reflection, as it offers both audio and video presentations of the teacher and the reactions of the learners. A well-positioned recording device should be unobtrusive and offer a view of the entire classroom and all of the participants. This is vital, as often times it is difficult to catch the reactions of all of the learners at all times. Another option is to design and implement surveys to give to the participants in your classroom. Those without experience should try to design the surveys to answer specific questions and offer precise and specific answers that can later be analyzed. A fourth suggestion would be to conduct interviews regarding the effectiveness of your teaching. Interviews with supervisors, peers, students, and even parents can all be useful. However, it may prove to be difficult to achieve reliable data with such direct contact, as some may be intimidated to offer honest or constructive feedback. A final suggestion would be to keep a journal or a portfolio of your own teaching successes and failures. Both formal and informal styles may work, however, the critical component is the reflection for the purpose of enhancing future lessons or instruction and not merely keeping a list of what worked and did not.
As a professional teacher who has direct experience with all of the above suggestions, they have all proven to be useful to some extent. The first four suggestions offer more immediate feedback and data which can be applied almost immediately in many situations. However, the fifth suggestion of keeping a journal offers a written account which can be revisited throughout one’s career. For those who feel they do not have the time to keep a written journal, they may opt to keep an audio journal or an audio video journal.
It may not be feasible or necessary to adopt all of the suggestions above. Each suggestion may offer a different kind of data, so it will depend on what style of data one is looking to acquire and one’s comfort level implementing each suggestion. For example, if a teacher is looking to acquire data on the styles of questions they ask their students during the class time, then perhaps all that is necessary is an audio recording device that could be strategically placed in the classroom. However, if one is looking to gather data on teacher movement throughout the classroom, then it would be necessary to use a video recording device. For the truly reflective practitioner a mixed approach will probably work best.
Reflective Teaching in Action
The following is a real-life example and explanation of a reflection-for-action RT activity that took place in the first semester of the 2016/2017 school year at a private university in Taiwan.
Background
Prior to moving to Taiwan to teach ESL/EFL at the post-secondary level, I was a full-time certified K-12 teacher in the public school system in the USA. I had earned a Master’s Degree in Teaching and I am endorsed to teach multiple subjects, including ESL, which I taught at both middle school and high school levels for four years prior moving to Asia. Self-reflection was one of the main tenants of my master’s degree program and I have always sought out methods of getting feedback and improving my teaching abilities, including being formally evaluated by the principal and vice principals four times per year, informally evaluated by my dept. chair, conducting action research in my classrooms, etc. Basically, I applied all of the methods in the Methods for Practicing Reflective Teaching section above, plus more. However, after arriving in Taiwan and beginning my work at my current university, I quickly realized that the academic environment here is nothing like the environment in the USA.
At many universities in Taiwan, there are no formal or informal teacher evaluations by supervisors. Supervisors never come to observe teachers because it is not necessary. Teachers are basically given a list of responsibilities, including teaching classes, and they are expected to fulfill all of them to a minimum expectation. If you do, you keep your job. If you don’t, you still might keep your job depending on how much people like you and how much demand there is for the teaching position. However, you may be placed on probation until you fulfill the requirements. The assumption is that if you have an MA or a Ph.D. and you are a native English speaker, you are qualified to teach ESL/EFL (the latter is the case today).
My previous university is the only American accredited university in Taiwan. However, there is virtually no professional development offered for teachers. In recent years, the university had offered extra clinics and seminars for web-based applications, like Moodle. However, the department. which is responsible for teaching all non-English majors ESL/EFL for four years has not offered any professional development activities, except the ones in which I had volunteered to lead. The majority of the teachers in the department do not have degrees related to teaching English and the majority of them had never taught ESL/EFL full-time prior to teaching in my department. Further, the majority of them have absolutely no interest in professional development, since the majority of them don’t really consider themselves to be professional ESL/EFL teachers. Therefore, it was easy for me to realize that if I wanted to continue my professional growth I would have to be responsible for it.
Since moving to Taiwan, I have continued my professional development by earning a Ph.D. in TESOL and I have developed ten categories I believe are essential for quality teachers and for professional development in teaching, including: Classroom management, clarity of oral and written expression, flexibility/adaptability, enthusiasm, instructional skills, models appropriate behavior, commitment to accomplishment, rapport with students, interpersonal skills, and knowledge of subject matter. A description of each category can be seen in Appendix A. Over the years I have developed rubrics for each category, so that I can evaluate myself critically and objectively and allow others to evaluate me as well. In addition, I have also developed student surveys which address the qualities listed in each category. In this way, I can obtain substantial feedback from three independent sources: other teachers, students, and myself. Throughout the course of the school year, I use these resources for various RT activities, and I will describe one reflection-in-action RT activity below.
Participants
The participants involved were 41 Taiwanese university EFL students enrolled in a required EFL course for non-English majored students. All of the participants were junior year students with an average of 8 years of full-time English course experience throughout junior high school, high school, and at the university level. Of the 41 participants, 29 were female and 12 were male.
Methodology
For this RT activity, one of the ten categories that I wanted to evaluate and get feedback on, classroom management, was selected. An assessment rubric was then created based on the category descriptions I had previously created (see Appendix B). Next, a student survey was created based on the subcategories of classroom management (see Appendix C), which would later be completed by the students after the lesson was concluded. The survey was designed with a five-point Likert scale with values ranging from zero points indicating never to four points indicating always.
Prior to the start of the class, two video cameras were strategically placed in the classroom as to record all of the teacher and student behavior. A crossfire configuration where each camera is placed to record at an opposite angle throughout the classroom was adopted. This ensured 100% coverage and multiple angles which could be viewed after the lesson was concluded.
During the class, both audio and video recordings were taken without interruption. By design, approximately ten minutes of time was set aside at the conclusion of the lesson for the students to complete the survey. The students were asked not to write their names on the survey, so that the answers would be anonymous and students could feel more comfortable to indicate honest and authentic answers.
In addition to the student surveys, multiple recordings of the lesson were made on DVDs and other ESL/EFL faculty members were solicited to view the lesson and anonymously complete the grading rubric which was provided for them. Of the 27 full-time faculty members in this department., none of them was interested in assisting and no feedback was received from any of them. However, I also reviewed the classroom video several times myself and completed my own assessment using the grading rubric.
The data collected from the surveys and the grading rubrics were then analyzed using SPSS statistical software in order to determine the mean scores.
Results from the Data
Student Surveys
The first section of the student survey is related to the subcategory of providing for large groups and individual instruction. The means scores and standard deviations can be seen in Table 1. The interpretations of the results have been rounded to their closest indicator. Question 1A indicates a value of almost always and questions 1B and 1C indicate a value of always.
Table 1. Questions related to providing for large groups and individual instruction.
The second section of the student survey is related to the subcategory of developing routines and procedures to increase academic learning time. The means scores and standard deviations can be seen in Table 2. The interpretations of the results have been rounded to their closest indicator. Questions 2A and 2B indicate a value of almost always and question 2C indicates a value of always.
Table 2. Questions related to developing routines and procedures to increase academic learning time.
The third section of the student survey is related to the subcategory of providing an environment conducive to learning. The means scores and standard deviations can be seen in Table 3. The interpretations of the results have been rounded to their closest indicator. Question 3A indicates a value ofalways and questions 3B and 3C indicate a value of almost always.
Table 3. Questions related to providing an environment conducive to learning.
The fourth section of the student survey is related to the subcategory of recognizing conditions that may lead to discipline problems. The means scores and standard deviations can be seen in Table 4. The interpretations of the results have been rounded to their closest indicator. Question 4A, 4B, and 4C all indicate a value of almost always.
Table 4. Questions related to recognizing conditions that may lead to discipline problems.
The fifth section of the student survey is related to the subcategory of responding appropriately when problems occur. The means scores and standard deviations can be seen in Table 5. The interpretations of the results have been rounded to their closest indicator. Question 5A indicates a value of always and questions 5B and 5C indicate a value of almost always.
Table 5. Questions related to responding appropriately when problems occur.
The sixth section of the student survey is related to the subcategory of assisting students towards self-discipline. The means scores and standard deviations can be seen in Table 6. The interpretations of the results have been rounded to their closest indicator. Question 6A indicates a value of always and questions 6B and 6C indicate a value of almost always.
Table 6. Questions related to assisting students towards self-discipline.
Teacher Assessment Rubric
As previously noted, only one teacher assessment rubric was completed for this RT activity. The assessment rubric was also based on a 5-point Likert scale with values ranging from zero to 4 points. After a thorough review of the classroom video, the results were as follows: 4 points were awarded for providing for large group and individual instruction, 4 points were awarded for developing routines and procedures to increase academic learning time, 4 points were awarded for providing and environment conducive to learning, 3 points were awarded for recognizing conditions that may lead to discipline problems, 4 points were awarded for responding appropriately when problems occur, and 4 points were awarded for assisting students towards self-discipline. The total points assigned for this assessment was 23, with a mean average score of 3.83.
Discussion Regarding the RT Activity
One important aspect of this reflection-in-action RT activity is that it demonstrates that if the RT activity is well-planned, it can provide an enormous amount of valuable information for the teacher to evaluate and reflect on. It can provide a clearer picture of classroom activities and student behavior and offer a realistic point of view as an objective observer. During this particular teaching lesson, the teacher believed that he was fully aware of everything taking place in the classroom throughout the entire lesson. However, upon review of the video, it became clear that there were in fact two students who were off task during a portion of the activity, hence the awarded points of 3 being given for recognizing conditions that may lead to discipline problems. These two particular students were off task specifically when the teacher turned his back to assist other students. Although their behavior was not disruptive to other students, it did hinder them from completing the task.
Naturally, one of the limitations of this RT activity was the lack of feedback from other teachers. Receiving more feedback would have increased the knowledge base in which to reflect on improvement. However, this only highlights the need for individual teachers to be using self-reflective teaching as a form of professional development when they are isolated from other resources or professionals.
Another limitation is with surveying the students. Due to the nature of the survey itself, the students may be actually commenting on the perceived qualities of the teacher and/or lessons throughout the duration of the EFL course and perhaps not the one lesson which was recorded. Therefore, it is necessary for the teacher to be aware of this issue when applying a similar RT activity.
Conclusion
If teachers desire to perform their instructional duties to their maximum potential and provide optimal learning opportunities for their students, they need to develop professionally in a multitude of ways. Through a critical self-examination of themselves and their own teaching practices, they can discover more effective teaching methodologies. Teachers are often overburdened and may have little to no time, energy, or resources to enhance their professional development. They may fail to see themselves as their own best learning opportunity with the knowledge and experience to assist them the most. However, self-examination and learning from one’s own knowledge and experience may be equally effective, if not more effective, as learning from other expert teachers or researchers. In terms of professional development, there is no need to be mutually exclusive and superior teachers can gain wisdom from all learning opportunities. The secret to success for teachers in self-evaluation is to recognize the relevance and significance of their own teaching and instructional tasks.
When teachers systematically and critically reflect on their own teaching practices, they can then make a larger contribution to their teaching community by sharing their insight and experiences. In doing so, a much wider understanding of teaching and learning can be gained by all. Perhaps one universal truth is that knowledge is fluid. It doesn’t always have to come from a laboratory or a textbook; it can come from a variety of resources and can be generated by the critical reflection of classroom practitioners. Improving one’s teaching abilities is a continuing process that takes places throughout one’s entire career.
References
Bailey, K. M. (2006). Language teacher supervision: A case-based approach. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
Best, K. (2011). Transformation through research-based reflection: A self-study of written feedback practice. TESOL Journal, 2(4), pp. 492-509. doi: https://doi.org/10.5054/tj.2010.271901
Burton, J. (2009). Reflective practice. In A. Burns & J. Richards (Eds.), The Cambridge guide to language teacher education (pp. 298-308). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
Farrell, T. S. C. (2007). Reflective language teaching: From research to practice. London, UK: Continuum Press.
Farrell, T. S. C. (2011). ‘Keeping SCORE’: Reflective practice through classroom observations. RELC Journal, 43(3), pp. 265-272. doi: https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0033688211419396
Farrell, T. S. C. (2012). Reflective practice as professional development. In C. Coombe, L. England, & J. Schmidt (Eds.), Reigniting, retooling, and retiring in English language teaching (pp. 23-32). Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press.
Killion, J., & Todnem, G. (1991). A process of personal theory building. Educational Leadership, 48, pp. 14-16.
Luft, J. (1984). Group process: An introduction to group dynamics (3rd edition). Palo Alto, CA: Mayfield.
Mermelstein, A. D. (2010),Matching teaching styles to promote student success. 2010 International Conference and Workshop on TEFL & Applied Linguistics (pp. 351-360) Taipei, Taiwan: Crane Publishing Co. LTD.
Richards, J. C. (2001). Curriculum development in language teaching. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
Richards, J. C., & Lockhart, C. (1994). Reflective teaching in second language classrooms. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
Schön, D. A. (1987). Educating the reflective practitioner: Toward a new design in teaching and learning in the professions. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass Publishers.
Wallace, M. (1996). Structured reflection: The role of the professional project in training ESL teachers. In D. Freeman & J. C. Richards (Eds.), Teacher learning in language teaching (pp. 281-294). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
Williams, M., & Burden, R. L. (1997). Psychology for language teachers: A social constructivist approach. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
Woolfolk, A. 1995. Educational psychology (6th edition), Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
