Introduction

The pandemic scenario has inevitably triggered the rethinking of assessment processes, teaching methodologies and class dynamics. Before the breakout of the pandemic, on-site teaching and on-site assessments were still the most used types of learning. The Online Learning and Teaching (OLT) model that was required by the worldwide health crisis shifted the ongoing dynamics to models where formative assessment acquired more weight. This was so partly due to the challenges posed by online teaching and online assessment. It is true that curricula which support self-regulated learning and formative assessment were a reality long before the pandemic. However, the pandemic speeded up their escalation to the top priorities of education. Now, the post-pandemic era demands flexible curricula, methodologies, and assessment systems where students become real agents of their learning process (Chung & Choi, 2021; Ockey, 2021). In this new paradigm, students have to be able to monitor and reflect on their learning progress, no matter whether they are studying with an online, on site, or hybrid system. In this context, self-assessment becomes an essential tool upon which to build knowledge. This is particularly true in learning a foreign language because language learning is continuous and formative, meaning that it requires ongoing assessment and feedback to support progress and development. This research intends to contribute to this area with research about self-assessment and seeks to explore whether self-assessment with rubrics improves students' consciousness of their own learning process. It was conducted in an English as a foreign language (EFL) classroom with students in the last year of secondary education in Spain. The research contrasts the teacher’s assessment with students’ self-assessment of an opinion essay. It also includes a survey on the student’s perceptions of their self-assessment with the aim of finding out whether rubrics work as an efficient tool for students to be aware of their learning processes. Despite the growing body of research on self-assessment and rubric use in foreign language learning, much of the existing literature has focused on higher education contexts, leaving secondary education relatively underexplored. Additionally, while several studies have examined the impact of rubrics on assessment accuracy and student performance, fewer have investigated their role in fostering self-regulated learning and metacognitive awareness at the secondary level. Given the increasing emphasis on student-centered learning and the need for effective self-assessment tools in post-pandemic education, this study aims to fill this gap by providing empirical evidence on the effectiveness of rubric-based self-assessment in an EFL secondary education classroom. Through a comparative analysis of teacher and student assessments, along with an exploration of student perceptions, this research seeks to contribute to the discussion on formative assessment practices and their role in promoting autonomous learning in language education.

Literature Review

Formative evaluation and self-assessment

In current society, a society of information and knowledge in which students must be the principal actors in the learning process, it is necessary to teach them how to learn, to engage themselves in the process, and to boost critical thinking, creativity, teamwork, initiative, and reflexion (Herrero Martínez et al., 2012). The European Higher Education Area (EHEA) has promoted formative education along with other methodologies which help learners to develop both academic and professional competences and to turn the student into an active subject (Bologna Declaration, 1999; Berlin Communiqué, 2003)

In formative evaluation the “primary purpose is to provide information for program involvement” (Carrillo Zoque & Unigarro, 2015, p. 36). This information is related to the evaluation of the process and is used to make curricular decisions on the content, the way of teaching, the reviewing, and so on. It allows the teacher to check, reinforce, and regulate learning and it allows the students to receive feedback, to check their progress, identify weaknesses, among other themes. According to Fatalaki (2015), formative assessment allows the teacher to correctly identify successful instruction and it also affects the learning engagement of the students since they can track their progress and enhance their language production faster. This type of assessment usually determines what is taught and how (Carrillo Zoque & Unigarro, 2015).

Although the concept of self-assessment is not new, its relevance and use in real classrooms is relatively recent. Its rise of popularity is directly linked to the promotion and implementation of formative assessment and student-centred methodologies in the last decades. Even though self-assessment can be performed as summative assessment (Andrade, 2019), the truth is that the dominant tendency is to implement it as a type of formative assessment. This is so because it is normally used to obtain feedback, support learning, and reflect on the processes related in order to enhance the learner’s performance. It is therefore not difficult to see self-assessment as a helpful tool for self-regulated learning (SRL), as many authors have already mentioned (Andrade, 2019; Yan, 2020). However, not everything related to self-assessment is positive. Some authors warn about possible disadvantages, such as its counterproductive effect if students are not assessing themselves in an honest way (Jamrus & Razali, 2019,). Notwithstanding, several studies (Rian et al., 2015; Salehi & Gholampour, 2022) did not find that students overrated themselves. In fact, Salehi & Gholampourpointed out that “a majority of students underrated themselves” (p. 8).

Self-assessment can be defined as the “wide variety of mechanisms and techniques through which students describe (i.e., assess) and possibly assign merit or worth to (i.e., evaluate) the qualities of their own learning processes and products” (Panadero et al., 2016, p. 804). Hence, through self-assessment students can track their learning progress and reflect on their learning processes too. Students become then active agents in charge of their education, they are more independent, and they work on their learning-to-learn ability. The benefits of self-assessment have been reported in several studies. Andrade (2019) carried out a critical review of research on student self-assessment and concluded that a positive association between self-assessment and learning had been demonstrated in more than twenty different studies. Studies such as the one conducted by Yan (2020) or the one by Seifert and Feliks (2019) also established associations between self-assessment and academic achievement.

In the field of the teaching/learning of a foreign language, the use of self-assessment in the FL class has also been studied and its benefits backed (Alek et al, 2020; Cömert & Kutlu, 2018; Jamrus & Razali, 2019; Mazloomi & Khabiri, 2018; Pui et al., 2020; Ratminingsih et al., 2018). All that research has pointed out the use of self-assessment as a learning tool that enables students to take responsibility of their own work and allows them to enhance their communicative competence. They have also indicated its use as a motivating and engaging tool for students. Furthermore, it is useful for teachers since it allows them to gather their students’ perceptions on their learning.Additionally, self-assessment saves teachers time since they are not solely responsible for providing students with feedback. Jamrus and Razali (2019) explain that in a modern classroom setting, the EFL lesson can have about thirty students. This makes it very hard for English teachers to assess all the students’ work and also to provide them with personalised feedback so that they can correct their mistakes and thus improve their linguistic competence. Moreover, Robiasih and Lestari (2020) add that “in the absence of face-to-face interactions, appropriate assessment becomes more important than before in offering constructive feedback” (p. 80). They also emphasized how fundamental formative assessment is in student-centred approaches in order to engage students. They have also pointed out how activities that involve self-evaluation and peer evaluation can enhance students’ cooperation and enthusiasm, and promote a stress-free environment.

As far as the writing skill is concerned, research has shown the positive correlation between self-assessment and writing (Ratminingsih et al., 2018). In addition, self-assessment is a key component of autonomous learning, which is essential in the development of students’ writing skills both in their native and foreign languages (Cömert and Kutlu 2018).

Rubrics

In the context of self-assessment, a rubric with a predetermined set of criteria and standards can serve as a learning-oriented tool that provides transparency and accountability to the assessment process. In research conducted by Wang (2017) about the use of rubrics for self-assessment of writing, findings showed the positive effect of using rubrics in three different stages: the forethought stage, the performance stage, and the self-reflection stage. Regarding the first one, students considered rubrics a roadmap that guide their efforts to achieve the highest levels expected by clarifying the expectations. As for the second stage, learners regarded rubrics as helpful for the enhancement of their alertness towards EFL writing obstacles by training self-monitoring habits. In terms of self-reflection, the rubric aided their feedback and quantified their writing performance, which allowed them to identify development stages.

Traditionally, a rubric is of a grid of multiple cells that work as an assessment tool to measure a learner’s performance in a standardised way. Rubrics are very useful instruments, and their use has been supported by extent research (Gallego-Arrufat & Raposo Rivas, 2014; Jönsson & Svingby, 2007; Panadero & Jönsson, 2013; Sundeen, 2014). Cano (2015) summarizes some of the reasons why the use of rubrics is so beneficial and why they should be regularly used in the classroom. First, he emphasizes that rubrics have an inherent formative character. Although they can be used as summative, they are associated with qualitative feedback. Thus, both teachers and students can learn what points need to be improved. Moreover, they are useful for teachers as they can include the curriculum goals and standards, and make sure the criteria they are applying for the assessment are appropriate to achieve the academic objectives and develop the learners’ competences. Cano also mentions the guiding value of rubrics, as learners know beforehand what is expected from them. Rubrics also allow the monitoring of students’ long-term development. Even though there is a large variety of rubric types, the most common classification is in holistic or analytic. In analytic rubrics the performance of students is compared to each of the criteria established separately while in a holistic their performance is compared to the criteria in general.

As far as the use of rubrics for the assessment of written production is concerned, rubrics were first used for the scoring of writing essays and compositions. This was so because the assessment of writing is very complex as different aspects need to be considered (Panadero & Jonsson, 2013). Although nomenclatures can vary, writing is frequently assessed taking into account some of the following aspects: grammar resource, lexical resource, organization, content, spelling, punctuation, etc. Bearing in mind all those different criteria, Mark Brook (as cited in Klimova, 2011) highlights how rubrics “enable an evaluator to convert a given quality of student work into a letter grade, percentage or level.” (p. 391).

Previous studies

Research on the assessment of writing with rubrics has been prolific. In the USA, Sundeen (2014) conducted a study with three different groups of students: one of them was shown and explained the rubric, the second group was only shown the rubric and the third one did not see or receive any explanation of the rubric. Results showed that the groups who had access to the rubric obtained better results. A similar study conducted by Becker (2016) showed that the involvement of students in the creation of the rubric had a positive impact on their results in comparison to those groups that were not involved in the creation of the rubric or those who were just shown the rubric. Studies carried out by Wang (2017) and Laurian and Fitzgerald (2013) obtained results in the same line.

Research on the use of self-assessment with rubrics to improve the writing skill in the English classroom has been conducted in primary, secondary and higher education. Jamus and Razali (2019) reviewed past research on self-assessment in English Language Learning to show that self-assessment is a very useful tool to promote autonomous learning, since students can give themselves feedback and they can reflect on their work and compare it with stated goals and criteria. In addition, self-assessment can motivate learners, foster critical thinking, reflection and commitment, and help in the development of autonomy. The review of nine different studies concluded that, if applied correctly, self-assessment is a very beneficial tool in the EFL classroom.

Concerning young learners, Vasileiadou and Karadimitriou (2021) examined the impact of self-assessment with rubrics for Primary School in a study with 70 participants divided in a control and experimental group. Their research showed a positive effect on the learners’ performance, particularly in their writing. They highlighted the potential of rubrics to let students know what is expected of them, and the potential benefits of training teachers on using students’ self-assessment in their class. Likewise, Wong and Mak (2019) explored the benefits of using rubrics for self-assessment in order to improve the writing performance of Primary School students. They concluded that self-regulation and the development of metacognitive skills are promoted. A similar study with American sixth graders on the impact of self-assessment, planning and goal setting, and reflection using rubrics to evaluate writing performance revealed that self-efficacy in writing and revision was enhanced, and the marks of this treatment group improved after the use of rubrics (Chung et al., 2021).

At university level, Vasu et al. (2022) conducted quantitative and qualitative research about the use of self-assessment feedback and teacher indirect feedback to enhance EFL writing. This quasi-experimental research examined of three classes of undergraduates studying EFL. They were randomly assigned to control and experimental groups and results indicated that both self-assessment and teachers’ indirect feedback helped students to become more autonomous or self-regulated. Moreover, here factors fostered strategy planning, adaptive behaviour, and goal setting. In the same line, Cheng and Chan (2019) analysed the impact on reflection of using rubrics as a tool for self-assessment in six universities in Hong Kong. Participants were divided into three groups: one was provided with an explanation of the rubric, the second group was only shown the rubric with no explanation whatsoever, and the third group had no access to it. The study determined that students’ reflective writing activities improved with access to the rubric. Finally, Vasu et al. (2018) focused on professors’ and students’ perceptions about the use of self-assessment rubrics to improve EFL learners’ writing in a Malaysian university. Students had to assess themselves with a checklist during a five-week period. The research tool was a semi-structured interview with four professors and the participant students. Findings highlighted the benefits of self-assessment for professors as their workload was significantly reduced. As for students, they claimed to be more motivated, to have increased their understanding of argumentative essays, and to be more aware of their own writing ability.

While recent research on the topic shows benefits in primary education and higher education, there has been little analysis at the secondary level, an educational stage where the integration of self-assessment with rubrics in the EFL classroom has a strong pedagogical potential. In the last five years, only one study was published concerning secondary education. Ratminingsih et al. (2018) explored the effects of self-assessment on EFL learners’ writing and independence with secondary school students in Indonesia. Students had to use an analytical rubric to evaluate their writings. The study determined that students internalized the standards better, they reflected on their own learning, revised more, they were more participative and motivated, and their writing performance was better. The current study aims to fill the gap in the research concerning self-assessment with rubrics to promote reflection and SRL with secondary school students.

Methodology

Research questions

The following are the research questions of this study:

RQ1. Does self-assessment improve secondary school students´ reflection on their own writing practice in EFL?

RQ2. Does teacher assessment differ much from secondary school students´ self-assessment?

Setting and participants

The research was conducted in a Public Secondary Education Centre in a town of the province of La Coruña (Spain) in the academic year 2021-2022. The participants were students in their last year of non-compulsory secondary education (2º Bachillerato), with ages between 17-18. There was a total of 37 students, 21 male and 16 female. They were divided in two groups: Group A had 17 students and Group B, 20. Students had an average English proficiency level between A2+ and B1 of the Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR) scale of language proficiency. All participants were informed about the research and gave their consent to the anonymous use of their data.

Procedure

A quantitative research approach was designed. The study was conducted in the English class during school hours. Students were asked to write an opinion essay in class. Students had previously written opinion essays, so they were familiar with this type of composition. Afterwards, students were given an analytic rubric they had not previously seen. They were asked to assess themselves with that rubric and also to answer a small survey with five statements they needed to rate using a Likert scale (see Appendix 1). Once the students had assessed their writing with the rubric and answered the survey, the teacher assessed the writings with the same rubric. Finally, scores given by the students and the teacher were analyzed together with the answers from the survey to draw conclusions using the statistical software SPSS 27.

Instrument

An analytic rubric was designed for this research. There were four criteria: content, organization, grammatical competence, and lexical competence. For each criterion, a five-level scale was assigned, with five being excellent and one poor. Within each level and criterion, a descriptor containing examples was included so that students, who were not used to assessing with a rubric, had a better understanding how to use it. The rating scale created was based on research by Becker (2018), although it was decided that the criterion “language use” would be divided in two criteria (grammar and lexical competence) to ease the assessment of the raters, as suggested in the conclusion of Becker’s article.

The survey

The survey was designed specifically for this research and consisted of five statements that students needed to rate using a Likert scale from 1 (totally disagree) to 5 (totally agree). The first statement dealt with whether they found self-assessment with the rubric easy. The second statement was about their views regarding the objectiveness of the assessment with that rubric. The third statement was related to whether they believed their self-assessed score would be similar to the one given by the teacher. The fourth one was about whether they would have written the essay in a different way after having done the self-assessment with the rubric. Finally, the fifth statement dealt with their views on whether having access to the rubric before writing would improve their scores. 

Findings

RQ1. Does self-assessment improve the students´ reflection on their own writing practice in EFL?

The survey responses received an average score indicating that students' answers tended to align with the "I agree" option, with a score of 4.

Table 1: Mean average obtained by each statement in the survey

Statement 1 is related to the easiness of the self-assessment process using the rubric provided. In this case, 78.4% of the students agreed (62.2%) or totally agreed (16.2%) that it had been easy to self-assess their essays with that rubric.

Figure 1: Students´ perception on their ability to assess themselves with the rubric

Students did not report much difficulty when doing the self-assessment with the given rubric, which was fundamental for a correct implementation of self-assessment in the class.

Regarding Statement 2, 78% of the students responded that the rubric helped them to be more objective when doing the self-assessment (43.2% totally agree and 35.1% agree).

Figure 2: Students' perception about the usefulness of using the rubric

The question of whether students believed their self-assessment was going to be very similar to the teacher’s raised more doubts, with more than half of the students (51.4%) indicating they did not know.

Figure 3: Students ‘expectations on the similarities between the teacher´s marks and their own

This contrasts with the results obtained in the previous statement since students considered the rubric helped them be more objective. Nevertheless, the use of a rubric does not necessarily guarantee that students perceive the teacher's assessment as fully objective. This could reflect either doubts about the teacher's objectivity or uncertainty about their own ability to assess their work accurately. Since our data do not directly address the reasons behind these perceptions, we can only suggest that both factors may contribute to this view.

Results obtained by the Statement 4 reflect that 78.3% (45.9% totally agree; 32.4% agree) of the students would have introduced changes in their essays if they had had to do the essay again after self-assessing with the rubric.

Figure 4: Students´ perception on whether knowing the rubric beforehand would impact their essay

These findings imply that students perceive the feedback offered by the rubric in their self-assessment as beneficial.

Finally, nearly two-thirds of the participants (64.8%) agreed or strongly agreed with the notion that pre-emptive access to assessment rubrics would enhance their academic performance, with 27% indicating agreement and 37.8% strong agreement.

Figure 5: Students’ perception on whether having access to the rubric beforehand will improve their writing performance.

R.Q.2. Does teacher assessment differ much from students´ self-assessment?

The average score of students’ self-assessment for these opinion essays was 6.84, while the average score of teacher’s ratings was 6.87. Almost half of the students (17) gave themselves a score that was either equal or lower than the one given by the teacher. Furthermore, the maximum difference between those was 1.75 points, while the difference between the two scores was below one in 22 out of the 37 cases. This suggests that the scores given to each essay by the students and by the teachers did not differ much.

Table 2: Average scores obtained by criterion in the students’ self-assessment and the teacher’s assessment

The teacher and the students coincided in the score for the criterion of ‘content’ fourteen times. This suggests that, when using the rubric, students reflected on their writing and were able to assess it quite accurately when it came to the criterion of ‘content’. On the other hand, ‘organization’ was assessed with a 3.627 on average by students while the result was bit lower in the case of the teacher’s score, suggesting that participant students overscored themselves on the criterion of organization. ‘Organization’ obtained a higher mark 20 times when is assessed by the students.

Discussion

The analysis of these data provided information that was useful to address the two research questions. The first research question focused on how self-assessment may help students enhance their own writing practice in English through reflection, as they become more aware of their own learning process. The reviewed literature provided background supporting that self-assessment improved SRL (Andrade, 2019; Yan, 2020). The fact that most of the participants would have changed their own essays if they had been given the opportunity to do so, agrees with this argument. Since the assessment tool itself provides specific guidelines, it can help students better understand the requirements for the task so they can direct their efforts towards that, which helps regulate their own learning process. Furthermore, students in this study tended to believe that knowing the rubric beforehand would have improved their writing performance. This also has been supported by Sundeen (2014) and Becker (2016) as well as Seifert and Feliks (2019) and Andrade (2019), who observed the connection between self-assessment and academic achievement. Although the scope of study of the two former authors was not specific to foreign language learning, their implications are relevant to the current study as shown by the students’ perception of the positive effects of being familiar with the rubric in their writing performance. In the field of learning a foreign language, several studies (Alek et al. 2020; Cömert & Kutlu, 2018; Jamrus & Razali, 2019; Mazloomi & Khabiri, 2018; Pui et al., 2020; Ratminingsih et al., 2018) pointed towards a general improvement in the students’ responsibility for their own work and even more improvement in their communicative competence, therefore encouraging SRL and autonomous learning. The learning strategy implemented in this study can contribute to the development of autonomy if used systematically, as it helps students understand not only how they are assessed by the teacher, but how to evaluate their own progress.

Productive skills, such as writing and speaking, are important elements of the communicative competence. Developing these skills requires active effort. Writing in particular requires careful planning which is linked to foreign language students taking responsibility of their own learning process. For example, without planning, learners tend to disregard the importance of using connective devices so that the text can be read fluently. If the students know that coherence and cohesion are assessed in the rubric, they will become more conscious of the text structure or the type of connectors they choose to use. Hence, their metacognitive skills are fostered, which had been previously shown with younger leaners by Wong and Mak (2019). Therefore, our study shows self-assessment can help foster metacognition also with older students. However, as we said before, more research is needed in this regard with Secondary students.

The second research question addressed the difference between teacher and students´ assessment in order to observe whether the latter had been objective in their self-assessment. In order for this type of assessment to be an effective learning tool, it needs to be objective. In the literary review, it was observed that one of the problems with self-assessment could be a lack of honesty (Jamrus and Razali, 2019). Nevertheless, other studies revealed that this might not be the case (Rian et al., 2015; Salehi & Gholampour, 2022). In our study, no meaningful differences were found when comparing the teacher’s assessment r and the self-assessment carried out by the students with the same rubric. This fact suggests that students can be quite objective when self-scoring themselves, something fundamental, particularly in the context of teenagers in Upper-Secondary Education in Spain_. In this educational level, students´ motivation often lies more on achieving higher marks to enter their desired degree at university (extrinsic motivation), than on reflecting on their own learning process (intrinsic motivation). This study hints that self-assessment with a rubric could enhance intrinsic motivation in language learning at an educational stage mainly driven by extrinsic motivation. In fact, students even underestimated and underscored their lexical range in their self-assessment as compared to the teacher´s mark. This self-perception might be due to the fact that students tend to consider their limited lexical repertoire as their main difficulty when writing a composition (Mojica, 2010). Finally, it has been claimed that self-assessment is an effective tool to develop autonomous learning (Cömer & Kutlu, 2018). In that argumentative line, the objectiveness of the students discussed above is key, as well as the reflection and awareness indicated by the survey results commented in the discussion of Research Question 1. Furthermore, most of the students surveyed agree that it had been easy to assess themselves with the rubric.

Conclusions and Pedagogical Implications

The findings presented in the preceding section support the fundamental aim of the present study, namely to establish the efficacy of writing rubrics as tools for self-evaluation within the context of second language acquisition in secondary school. In this paradigm, students´ use of an assessment rubric seemed to enhance reflection, metacognition, and intrinsic motivation towards language learning. Therefore, it is crucial to cultivate learning dynamics, such as the one described in this study, that prioritize autonomous learning and involve teachers as facilitators. This approach entails aiding students in developing independent learning skills and reinforcing their ability to learn autonomously. Students must know how to monitor their progress and use all the resources at their disposal for learning, not only during their formal education but also outside the class and during their whole life.

Further research is needed on the topic, as this is a small-scale study and hence its results are limited. Nevertheless, they are still relevant due to the limited amount of previous studies at this educational level. It would be very interesting to extend the research to larger scales to check if similar results can be found. In addition, it would be advantageous to study the use of self-assessment with rubrics in other modes of communication such as speaking.

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