Introduction

It is widely known that the pandemic caused English as a foreign language (EFL) teachers and learners to experience challenges which were motivated by the abrupt transition to virtual teaching and learning, i.e., emergency remote teaching (ERT). We are a group of EFL teachers who have taught the language in face-to-face classes, but none of us had any experience teaching the language virtually using platforms for this purpose. We believe that the objective of any EFL teacher is to promote teacher-learner and peer interactions with a view to develop learners’ communicative skills. However, since educational activities (as many others) changed because of the COVID-19 pandemic, the need to promote interactions in the virtual classroom is apparent.

To respond to the above challenge, in this article we propose some tasks which promote interactions and particularly negotiation for meaning (NfM) in EFL remote classes. This proposal consists of seven different tasks, six of which are based on previous research aimed at exploring NfM in English language teaching (ELT). The seven tasks were adapted to be taught online: information gap, sharing opinions and decision-making tasks. To develop the proposal, we considered some key concepts that represent the basis of these tasks, i.e., ERT, the Interaction Hypothesis (IH) and NfM. This conceptual framework will be presented in the following section.

Emergency remote teaching

The COVID-19 pandemic has prompted multiple sectors to quickly adapt to a variety of changes. These changes are notorious in the education sector, where teachers rapidly adapted their practice to a digital environment. In doing so, some teachers encountered difficulties because of a lack of pedagogical content knowledge for online education (Rapanta et al., 2020). This includes not only experience using platforms or technological requirements, but also an understanding of how to achieve significant learning. For this reason, it is important to distinguish between online teaching and ERT. Hodges et al. (2020) defined ERT as:

A temporary shift of instructional delivery to an alternate delivery mode due to crisis circumstances. It involves the use of fully remote teaching solutions for instruction or education that would otherwise be delivered face-to-face or as blended or hybrid courses and that will return to that format once the crisis or emergency has abated. (p. 14)

Therefore, ERT was implemented only to respond to the lockdown conditions. ERT includes the diverse solutions that have been applied to continue with instruction, such as blended teaching and learning, use of educational platforms or learning applications. One of the disadvantages of the ERT mentioned by Hodges et al. (2020) is that the quality of education was diminished in some settings because teachers were not prepared to face this abrupt shift. Also, Syahrin and Salih (2020) observed that in an English as a Second Language (ESL) context, learners reduced their productive skills. The reason receptive skills were more salient was that teachers controlled the interactions and only produced language input for learners. These findings are significant because they are similar to what we observed in an online class for young adults in Mexico. In this observation, reduced interactions were noticed, as well as a lack of control over the ways learners communicate with each other. Consequently, we decided to suggest activities that can be adapted to ERT supported by the IH. More information about this topic is provided in the following section.

The Interaction Hypothesis and Negotiation for Meaning

The IH was put forward by Long (1980) as a result of analyzing conversations between native speakers and non-native speakers in Japan for his doctoral dissertation. The hypothesis suggests the relevance of interaction and communication in language learning. In the IH, several concepts are discussed, in particular, comprehensible input (language made comprehensible in interaction), speech modifications and NfM. For the purpose of this article and the tasks we propose, we will focus on the notion of NfM.

The IH has gone through several revisions. The first revision took place in 1983. However, because of strengths and challenges in observing and applying the IH, Long reformulated the hypothesis for a second time in 1996. In this second revision of the hypothesis, he establishes the roles of attention, awareness, and focus on form during NfM in foreigner talks, as well as positive and negative evidence. Motivated by this second revision, several authors (Foster, 1998; Foster & Ohta, 2005) have attempted to identify the benefits of NfM. The results of their research studies have confirmed that interaction in class can bring clarity, accuracy, and comprehensibility in messages. More recently, Gass and Mackey (2006) identified the main constructs of this hypothesis. They claim that output, input and feedback represent the parts of a cycle of the IH. It is widely known that NfM can bring several language learning benefits, and these have been corroborated by research evidence (Foster, 1998; Foster & Ohta, 2005).

Long (1996) explains that in the IH the concept of NfM is central. He defines it as a “negotiation for meaning, and especially negotiation work that triggers interactional adjustments by the NS [native speaker] or more competent interlocutor, facilitates acquisition because it connects input, internal learner capacities, particularly selective attention, and output in productive ways” (pp. 451-452). In other words, it is:

the process in which, in an effort to communicate, learners and competent speakers provide and interpret signals of their own and their interlocutor’s perceived comprehension, thus provoking adjustments to linguistic form, conversational structure, message content, or all three, until an acceptable level of understanding is achieved. (Long, 1996, p. 418)

Different factors can affect NfM. For example, the types of signals interpreted by each participant are also known as positive evidence and negative evidence. The first type refers to signals that show understanding of communication. The second type results from breakdowns in communication and learners need to modify their speech to solve those problems. Pica (1996) mentions that the following components are necessary in the process of NfM:

Access to [second language] input that is meaningful and comprehensible in its message, and modified to draw attention to its form; 2) to be given feedback on the comprehensibility and accuracy of their messages, and 3) to modify their production of output toward greater comprehensibility, complexity, and accuracy. (p. 248)

Hence, negotiation implies a communicative process in which two or more learners (and the teacher) are involved. In this interaction, a source of input is needed, as well as positive and negative evidence, so that learners can modify their speech to be understood. Long (1996) sustains that “[NfM] facilitates acquisition because it connects input, internal learner capacities, particularly selective attention, and output in productive ways” (p. 452). Therefore, NfM can be an important source of acquisition in the language classroom. Research has shown the benefits of negotiation in face-to-face classrooms (Bitchener, 2004; Fujii et al., 2008; Palma, 20l4). We maintain that NfM is beneficial not only in face-to-face interactions in class but also to learners in a remote environment. Therefore, we decided to make adaptations to tasks suggested in previous research (Bitchener, 2004; Fujii et al., 2008; Palma, 2014). This decision is also based on studies such as Foster’s (1998), and Pica’s (1996) which present NfM in authentic classroom interactions.

Proposal of Tasks

The COVID-19 pandemic led people around the world to modify their domestic, educational and economic activities. These adjustments involved transforming the daily face-to-face interactions into virtual ones, which necessitated new approaches to teachers’ usual duties. However, teachers needed to adapt them virtually and at a distance, as well as to seek different technological resources to carry out language activities.

According to Prabhu (1987), a task is “an activity which require[s] learners to arrive at an outcome from given information through some process of thought and which allow[s] teachers to control and regulate that process” (p. 24). This definition suits the nature of the tasks that will be presented next because they encourage other learners’ skills besides the linguistic ones, such as critical thinking, and decision-making, among others.

We will present a proposal that includes seven different tasks which can assist teachers/educators in fostering NfM in the virtual EFL classroom. Six of them are adaptations of ones used in three previous studies. The first study is: The relationship between the negotiation of meaning and language learning: A longitudinal study by Bitchener (2004), in which it was investigated the extent to which participants successfully retained linguistic features acquired through NfM. The second study is: Training learners to negotiate for meaning: An exploratory case study. As the title indicates, Fujii et al. (2008) trained their participants to be aware of NfM and to put this into practice in language learning interactions. The final study is: A classroom view of negotiation of meaning with EFL adult Mexican pupils. In this research, Palma (2014) explored modified output (including NfM) during interactions between EFL learners. These adaptations were developed for the upper-immediate young adult virtual classroom. However, they could be modified to be used in other specific contexts with learners of different ages and/or language levels. The seventh task we propose is an adaptation into the virtual mode of the well-known game named “Taboo”. Next, a detailed description of each task will be provided. The first one is presented in Table 1 below.

Table 1: Task 1. Spot the difference

This information gap task is adapted from one employed by Bitchener (2004). This task is to be implemented in pairs. If there are many learners, the teacher may ask them to work in pairs to complete the task. They would have to record themselves so that there would be evidence of their proficiency level. If the class works with platforms like Zoom, the teacher could create breakout rooms and have the pairs interact. In platforms like Google Meet, where it is not possible to create breakout rooms, learners could be asked to share their responses with the whole class. It is known that activities like this tend to be time consuming when there is a large number of learners in the class. If that is the case, the task could be set as homework and learners would have to record their interactions and send the recordings to the teacher.

Table 2 displays the second task, which is also an adaptation from Bitchener (2004) for a study focused on NfM.

Table 2: Task 2. A sad story

This is a decision-making task. If the class is large, the teacher can ask them to have work in pairs and to complete the task. Alternatively, they would have to record themselves so that there is an evidence of their proficiency level.

Table 3 is an adaptation of a task proposed by Bitchener (2004).

Table 3: Task 3. Movie trailers

This decision-making task is aimed at promoting NfM through a discussion. It is recommended that learners work in pairs. Teachers can use the suggested questionnaire or elaborate a similar one that corresponds to their classroom’s needs. Learners can work on any platform during the discussion activity, but they must save evidence, such as videos, text or voice-messages, or emails. A possible problem would be that learners may experience a bad internet connection to watch the videos on YouTube. To address this, the teacher can download the videos and send them to the learners in advance. Additionally, the videos can be uploaded on a different free platform (e.g., Facebook) for learners’ use.

The fourth task is presented in Table 4. It is an adaptation from Fujii et al.’s (2008) task for training learners in negotiating meaning.

 Table 4: Task 4. Completing the comic strip story

This is an information gap task aimed at promoting NfM by completing a comic strip story. If they work on other platforms which do not allow to split the group into breakout rooms, the task could be set as homework. If possible, one learner should print out the strip story and draw on it what the team agrees that could best complete the strip story. If they cannot print it out, they could try to draw the digital image, or one learner could make the drawings on a piece of paper, and then take pictures of the drawings and complete the digital strip story with those pictures. Learners could also make use of digital images and/or photographs. It could be left up to their creativity. The teacher could collect the complete strip stories as evidence of the learners’ performance.

Table 5 illustrates the fifth task, which is an adaptation of Fujii et al. (2008).

 Table 5: Task 5. Who Am I?

This is a two-way interaction task which aims at promoting NfM by spotting the difference regarding physical appearance. It is also suggested that if they work on platforms like Zoom, this task could be carried out during class time by sending learners to breakout rooms. If they work on other platforms which do not allow splitting the group into break out rooms, then the task could be set as homework and the activity could be recorded by using WhatsApp videos or audios. The recordings would represent the evidence in which they discussed the characters’ physical appearance. Also, if learners have a bad internet connection or not enough data, the facilitator could ask them to download the game in advance.

Table 6 shows a slightly different task from Task 2. It is a decision-making task, based on a story but this one was originally applied in a study carried out by Palma (2014).

Table 6: Task 6. A diamond robbery

This task consists of finding the guilty party in a diamond robbery. If possible, the teacher could divide the group into teams of five members each. If the platform with which they work does not allow this, learners could interact as a whole class. A possible problem would be that shy learners may not participate frequently but the teacher can intervene, so the whole class interacts.

Table 7 presents the last task, which is our proposal for carrying out a version of the taboo game in a virtual mode.

Table 7: Task 7. Taboo game

The taboo game is well known since it is useful to encourage interactions among peers and NfM. This task could be handled with the whole class. Teachers need to be aware that learners may need help to describe the words and teachers can provide positive or negative evidence to engage in the NfM..

Discussion and Conclusion

This paper presented some tasks which could be useful for the ERT in situation like the COVID-19 pandemic. It was motivated by our observations of the difficulties that teachers encountered when trying to promote interactions in a digital classroom. As previously discussed, there are several benefits in terms of second language learning from the promotion of interactions and NfM. This is why it is relevant to implement tasks that provide learners with the opportunity to interact with their peers and their teacher. ERT has affected in diverse ways the educational routines that English teachers were accustomed to using. Therefore, seeking alternatives that nurture effective learning became a priority. This process was not easy and still it had to be developed as quickly as possible.

Regarding specifically NfM, we are aware that even in face-to-face classes having learners interact and negotiate for meaning is difficult to achieve. So, it becomes more challenging to achieve it in virtual classes since the teachers do not have the same control as they do in face-to-face lessons. Therefore, the tasks proposed in this paper may represent a useful tool to assist NfM in digital classrooms. We have considered two ways in which the tasks can be carried out. One implies access to software with tools that facilitate learning such as Zoom, which offers a free version, so the majority of teachers who are interested can implement these tasks. Pica (1996) indicates that other tasks which engage learners in a higher degree of thought can be included in NfM tasks. Some examples are information gap, opinion sharing, and decision-making tasks. However, the most important characteristic is that learners share objectives, and the tasks be relevant to them. In this case, we consider that teachers can first explain the instructions and then promote collaborative learning.

For research on NfM, we recommend that researchers continue counting instances of negotiation moves (clarification requests, comprehension checks and confirmation checks) using the tasks suggested in this paper. In this way the debate on the importance of the IH and NfM can be expanded to ERT. Additionally, teachers might also contribute by addressing their impressions of implementing the activities and discuss its feasibility in their contexts. We maintain that classroom teachers can also produce research of quality and engage in topics of second language acquisition in order to inform their practices.

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